A phobia is an extreme and
irrational fear of a situation, living
creature, place or thing (Medical news today, 2012). We all have them – that
feeling of dread that creeps up on you when you see a spider, the foreboding of
the sinister laugh of a clown, the cold sweat that seeps down your neck when
you visit the dentist, or the two bars you hear from the Jaws movie that makes
your heart pump.
While you may be
laughing at my imagery, phobias are a serious psychological issue and have
serious implications for not only the individual but also the perceptions of
society in which they reside. Xenophobia, for example, is a rampant phobia that
has affected Australian history since its inception. While an unreasonable fear
of foreigners and strangers (dictionary.com) seems contradictory to Australia’s
professed inclusive, multicultural policies in which all people are entitled to
a ‘fair go’ the annals of history are littered with xenophobic policies
including the White Australia Policy, Asylum seeker policies and Australia’s
attitudes and historical treatment of the Aboriginal peoples.
There is another kid on the
block and he is everywhere – in our schools, newspapers, televisions and around
the world. His name is Islamaphobia – fear of Islam and of Muslim people. They
are the face of the ‘other’ pose a threat to the norm. This can be further
understood through Pierre Bourdou’s notion of ‘cultural capital’, where some
cultural activities and knowledge are seen as ‘naturally’ superior. It feeds
into phobias as it is based on symbolic violence,
where the imposition of one group’s values and beliefs are as such that the
dominance seems normal (Wadham, B.
Pudsey, J. & Boyd, R., 2007, p.23). In this
case, the threat from the ‘other’ – Islam – is seen as challenging the dominant
cultural norms and values of western society and the perceived threat is met
with subtle (and sometimes not so much) resistance.
As Baumen concludes,
‘If the stranger cannot be made
non-existent, he can at least be made untouchable’ (Baumen in Saniotis,
2004). The increasing ostracization of Muslims in
Australia is clearly documented by the media as fear is turned into campaigns
of hate which inform Government Policy. This can be seen in America, where Muslims
are described as ‘savage’ in an advertising campaign driven by the group ‘American
Freedom Defense Initiative’ spearheaded by Pamela Geller. The posters, found to
be legal as a ratification of the first amendment, freedom in political speech (US District Court, 2012) litter the New York Subway
and further perpetuate the cycle of fear and hate. Susan Froetschel, in her blog
for the Washington Post, asserts:
“Intolerance, an ugly quest for power and
control, relying on fear to motivate - the certainty of some in proving to
another that his or her frame of meaning has no value” (Washington Post, 2012)
Culture shapes us
and we, in turn, shape it (Kenway and Bullen, 2001) and our beliefs and values
evolve accordingly. To understand how and why we drive meaning and action from
our beliefs and values is one of the most fundamental indicators of self-discovery
(Wadham et al, 2007, p. 10) and allows us to step back clearly view any
prejudice of the other.
Not only as Australian
citizens, but as people, we should not fear difference whether that is in
color, race, beliefs or custom. We are all cultural beings and as such
inherently have differences in beliefs and way of life (Wadham et. al, 2007, p.
1) which shapes our feelings, behavior and choices.
Schools, as a place where culture is produced,
consumed and regulated (Kenway and bullen, 2001) are a traditional site of cultural
struggle. Islamophobia, as a result, has played out in our schools and shaped
and informed the perception of Muslims in Australia and the world. Post-September
11, negative, phobia fuelled debates have erupted over the whole population
over religious and cultural customs. This has included the banning of the
headscarf in French schools (BBC News, 2004), the rejection of the building of
an Islamic school in Camden (Green Left, 2008), and going so far as to ‘monitor’
schools, mosques and ‘ethnic hotspots’ in America (US News, 2012). As recently
as September 21, 2012, a man was reported to have made a phone call to the
Australian Islamic College of Sydney (Mt. Druitt) and threatened to ‘burn it down, and spray it with pig’s blood’
in response to protests made over an Anti-Islamic film (Australian Associate
Press in Islamic News Daily, 2012)
One may speculate that the
phobias and prejudice in the media and adult world inform the views of young
people in schools, as they are likely to internalize political conflict to
shape playground politics, leading to bullying and tensions between groups that
can lead to violent outbursts, as was seen in the 2005 Cronulla riots (SMH,
2005).
Islamophobia isn’t just
about the irrational fear of this group of people, but also the discrimination
practice through the exclusion of economic, social and public life. The view
encompasses the idea that Islam is a violent political ideology rather than a
religion (Runnymede, 1997
in Quraishi, 2005, 60). With Sydney having the highest concentration of Muslim
People in Australia (Wise and Ali, 2008 in Gulson and Webb, 2012) the discrimination
and marginalization of Muslim parents in public schools creates a wish for an
environment of acceptance for their children (Gulson and Webb, 2012). As expounded
in Wells, Lopez, Scott and Holme,
“We live in an era which potential
conflict is focused on group than the redistribution of economic resources…
such a shift in emphasis from a politics of redistribution to that of
recognition may reflect, in part, the end of modernity its hope for greater equality.”
-
Wells,
Lopez, Scott and Holme, 2007, p. 173.
In the
complex racalised politics that shape school choice, children attend Islamic schools
for a plethora of reasons. According to Gulson and Webb (2012) these include ‘Religious
observance, cultural continuity and moral values that are seen as different
from the ‘western values’ in public schools’ (Gulson and Webb, 2012). One may speculate that the symbolic violence
against the difference of culture as well as perceived and actual
discrimination as a result of Islamophobia to have brought to the increase in
choice to send children to these Religious and Independent schools, further
driving the government and all Australians apart from the professed goals of equity,
excellence and being active and informed citizens (Melbourne Declaration on
educational goals for young Australians, 2008).
References
American Freedom Defense Initiative v. Metropolitan
Transport Authority (2012), Opinion and Order, http://www.americanfreedomlawcenter.org/uploads/caseapps/cd73167f3b5fa0b32c0eed3344d92b411afbc634.pdf,
American
Freedom Law Centre
Australian Associated Press (2005), ‘Mob
violence envelops Cronulla’ ‘http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/mob-violence-envelops-cronulla/2005/12/11/1134235936223.html
Sydney Morning Herald
Dictionary.com, Defining ‘Xenophobia’ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/xenophobia?s=t
Flock, E (2012) ‘Leaked NYPD Document Lists Watched Mosques,
Islamic Schools’, http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/06/04/leaked-nypd-document-lists-watched-mosques-islamic-schools,
US News
Froetschel, S (2012), Anti-Muslim subway ads throughout New York City:
Fighting for faith?, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/guest-voices/post/anti-muslim-subway-ads-throughout-new-york-city-fighting-for-faith/2012/09/26/0e65ffc4-07ff-11e2-a10c-fa5a255a9258_blog.html Washington Post Online
Gulson, K. N & Webb, P.T (2012)
Education Policy Racialisations: Afrocentric schools, Islamic schools and new enunciations of equity.
IND (2012) ‘Australian Threatens
To Burn Down Islamic School’ http://www.islamicnewsdaily.com/islamophobia/australian-threatens-burn-islamic-school/
Islamic News Daily
Kenway, J. & Bullen, (2001). Consuming children:
Education-Entertainment-Advertising. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Chapter 5: Designer schools, packaged students.
Quaraishi, M. (2005) Muslims against
crime: a comparative study, Ashgate publishing ltd.
Medical News today, http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/249347.php
Melbourne Declaration of Educational
Goals of Young Australians (2008)
http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_Young_Australians.pdf
Minesterial Council for Education Early childhood development and Youth affairs
Robson, P (2005) ‘From Hanson to Camden: Australia's racist shame’ http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/39688
Green Left Weekly
Saniotis, A. (2004) Embodying
ambivalence: Muslim Australians as 'other', Journal of
Australian Studies, 82
Quaraishi, M. (2005) Muslims against
crime: a comparative study, Ashgate publishing ltd.
Wadham, B. Pudsey, J. & Boyd, R. (2007). Culture and education. Sydney: Pearson
Education. Chapter 1: What is culture?
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